UPSC Geography Optional Syllabus for Mains – Detailed Paper I & II Breakdown (2025)

Geography Optional – Paper I

Principles of Geography – Physical and Human Geography

1. Physical Geography

1.1 Geomorphology

• Origin and evolution of the earth.
• Earth's interior: structure and composition.
• Continental Drift Theory – Wegener’s theory and its evidences.
• Plate Tectonics – Plate boundaries, seismicity, volcanism, and mountain building.
• Isostasy – Concepts of Airy and Pratt.
• Landforms and processes:
• Fluvial, arid, glacial, coastal, and karst landforms.
• Processes of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
• Evolution of landforms under different geomorphic processes.
• Slope development theories – Davis, Penck, and King.
• Applied Geomorphology – Geomorphology and its role in mineral exploration, civil engineering, and hydrology.

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1.2 Climatology

• Composition and structure of the atmosphere.
• Solar radiation and heat budget – Factors influencing temperature distribution.
• Atmospheric pressure systems, winds (planetary, periodic, and local).
• Jet streams, monsoons, cyclones (tropical and extra-tropical).
• Air masses and fronts – Classification and weather patterns.
• Climate classification – Koppen, Thornthwaite.
• Climate change – Recent trends and global warming.

1.3 Oceanography

• Ocean bottom topography – Continental shelf, slope, abyssal plains, oceanic ridges.
• Ocean temperature and salinity – Distribution and factors.
• Ocean currents – Causes, major currents of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.
• Tides and waves – Causes and types.
• Marine resources – Biotic, mineral, and energy resources.
• Coral reefs – Types and theories (Darwin, Daly, Murray).
• El Niño, La Niña, and Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

1.4 Biogeography

• Plant and animal life – Factors influencing distribution.
• Biomes – Tropical rainforest, savanna, desert, tundra, etc.
• Ecosystems – Structure and function, energy flow, food chains.
• Man-environment relationship.
• Biodiversity – Importance, threats, conservation efforts.
• Soil types – Formation, classification, and erosion.

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1.5 Environmental Geography

• Environmental degradation and conservation.
• Environmental hazards and disasters – Earthquakes, floods, droughts, cyclones.
• Human-induced environmental issues – Pollution (air, water, land, noise).
• Global environmental issues – Ozone depletion, acid rain, climate change.
• Environmental management and sustainable development.
• International environmental treaties and conventions.

2. Human Geography

2.1 Perspectives in Human Geography

• Evolution of geographical thought:
• Determinism, possibilism, neo-determinism.
• Regional geography vs systematic geography.
• Quantitative revolution and models in geography.
• Behavioral, radical, and humanistic approaches.
• Welfare and feminist geography.

2.2 Economic Geography

• Sectors of economy – Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.
• Agricultural systems – Types, intensive and extensive, plantation, mixed farming.
• Location theories:
• Von Thünen’s model of agricultural location.
• Weber’s theory of industrial location.
• Christaller’s Central Place Theory.
• World industries – Iron and steel, textiles, petrochemicals, and automobiles.
• Trade and transport – International trade patterns, global connectivity.
• Energy resources – Conventional and non-conventional.
• Industrial regions of the world – USA, Western Europe, Russia, Japan.

2.3 Population and Settlement Geography

• World population distribution and growth patterns.
• Demographic transition model.
• Migration – Types, causes, consequences.
• Settlements – Types (rural and urban), morphology and functions.
• Urbanization – Trends, problems, and policies.
• Classification of towns – Primate city, rank-size rule, metropolitan regions.

2.4 Regional Planning

• Concepts of region – Formal, functional, and planning regions.
• Regional development theories – Growth Pole Theory, Core-Periphery Model.
• Multi-level planning – District, state, and national levels.
• Regional disparities and development strategies.

2.5 Models, Theories, and Laws in Human Geography

• Gravity model.
• Rank-size rule and Primate city rule.
• Central Place Theory (Christaller and Losch).
• Demographic Transition Theory.
• Malthusian and Marxian theories of population.
• Von Thünen's model, Weber's theory.
• Rostow’s stages of growth.
• Heartland and Rimland Theories (Mackinder and Spykman).

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Geography Optional – Paper II

Geography of India

1. Physical Setting

• Geological structure and physiographic divisions of India.
• Major river systems – Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.
• Climate – Mechanism of Indian monsoon, climatic regions, variability, and climatic hazards.
• Natural vegetation – Types and distribution.
• Soils – Types, distribution, and conservation measures.

2. Resources

• Land resources – Land use classification and problems of land degradation.
• Water resources – Distribution, management (interlinking of rivers, watershed development).
• Mineral and energy resources – Distribution, production, and conservation.
• Agricultural resources – Cropping pattern, irrigation, green revolution, agricultural productivity.
• Livestock and fisheries – Distribution and significance.

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3. Agriculture

• Agricultural regions and systems.
• Agro-climatic zones.
• Problems of Indian agriculture – Fragmentation of land, soil exhaustion, waterlogging.
• Food security, buffer stock, and PDS.
• Recent trends – Organic farming, contract farming, precision agriculture.

4. Industry

• Evolution and distribution of major industries – Iron and steel, textiles, sugar, cement, petrochemicals.
• Industrial policies – Pre and post-liberalization.
• Industrial regions of India – Mumbai-Pune, Kolkata-Hugli, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu, etc.
• MSMEs and industrial corridors – Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC), Freight Corridors.

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5. Transport, Communication, and Trade

• Road, rail, air, and water transport networks – Their development and regional disparities.
• Communication infrastructure – Digital connectivity, telecom networks.
• International trade – Composition and direction.
• Ports and SEZs.

6. Cultural Setting

• Distribution and characteristics of major tribes.
• Racial, linguistic, and religious groups.
• Cultural regions of India.
• Fairs, festivals, and pilgrimage tourism.

7. Settlements

• Types, patterns, and morphology of rural settlements.
• Urbanization trends and problems.
• Smart cities and urban development missions (e.g., AMRUT, JNNURM).
• Slums and informal sector issues.

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8. Regional Development and Planning

• Five-Year Plans and their geographical implications.
• Planning regions – Identification and delineation.
• Regional imbalances – Causes and strategies for balanced development.
• Watershed development and sustainable development initiatives.

9. Political Aspects

• Geographical basis of Indian federalism.
• State reorganization and inter-state disputes.
• International boundary issues – India-Pakistan, India-China, India-Bangladesh, India-Myanmar.
• Geopolitical significance of India in the Indian Ocean region.

10. Contemporary Issues

• Environmental degradation – Deforestation, desertification, pollution.
• Natural disasters – Earthquakes, floods, droughts, cyclones.
• Climate change impact on India – Sea level rise, glacier retreat.
• Regional disparities – Socio-economic and environmental aspects.
• Disaster management – NDMA framework, vulnerability mapping.